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Kuhn said science alternates between stable normal science and revolutions, which begin when stubborn anomalies cause a crisis and a rival framework wins over leading researchers.
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The problem of induction asks what justifies expecting the unobserved to resemble the observed. Hume argued that any justification is circular, and forecasting methods inherit that question.
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Falsifiability is the idea that a scientific claim must be able to conflict with some possible observation. Popper proposed it to separate science from pseudoscience and metaphysics.
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In 1963 Edmund Gettier showed that a belief can be true and well justified yet still not be knowledge, undermining the traditional definition of knowledge as justified true belief.
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Occam's razor is a rule of thumb to prefer the simpler of two equally good explanations. It is named for William of Ockham, though the idea is older and the famous wording is not his.
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